Introduction
Human rights are defined as “the rights inherent to all human beings, whatever their nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, status is”. These rights are interrelated, indivisible and interdependent. Human rights are expressed by law in the form of treaties, principles and rules. Human rights include right to life, equality, freedom of expression, or social, economic and cultural rights such as right to work, security, education, or collective rights such as right to development and self-determination. (United Nations, 2011)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights by United Nations General Assembly was the first step towards human rights protection in 1948. It is the interpretation of “human rights” included in the Charter of United Nations. Human rights are fundamental rights of the human beings. They define relationship between persons and the power structures i-e State. State takes positive measures to ensure the protection of human rights. Human rights are universal. It has been described by Kofi A. Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, addressing at the University of Tehran on Human Rights Day, 1997 that “Human rights are foreign to no culture and native to all nations; they are universal” (Nowak, 2005).
Human rights are universal and are subjected to all human beings in the world. But the variety of cultural patterns is having some variation of human rights within them. Diversity means “difference from the majority”. Having a closer look, it is found that every culture has majority and minorities. The majority follows the basic principles of the cultural pattern but the minorities have other branches as well. People from diverse cultures convey different language skills, new thinking patterns, imaginative solutions to problems and negotiating patterns. Culture is “a set of norms that set standards for a society of what is acceptable behavior”. (Lee, 2011)
Culture is the set of unique spiritual, materialistic, emotional and intellectual features of the society. The relationship between human rights and the cultural diversity is defined as safeguarding and respecting major and minor cultural patterns defined by the authorities. Human rights safeguards this cultural diversity by showing respect to the fundamental freedoms i-e freedom of thought, religion and conscience, freedom of expression, freedom of opinion and freedom to take part in the cultural norms and life of one's own choice. (UNESCO, 2008) Universal human rights are not meant to impose one cultural standard on another. But it speaks to have assigned legal standard for protecting human dignity, giving freedom to the minorities of one culture. Universal rights reflect dynamic and coordinated efforts to achieve and advance the common standard of law for protecting human dignity. Universal rights exercise flexibility to protect and respect cultural diversity and its integrity. This flexibility is facilitated by establishing minimum standards and incorporation of the cultural rights. (Ayton-Shenker, 1995)
Human rights are well understood by communicating them to a wider audience. Media is the generator or the source of information. Media communicate human rights and it is a significant player in providing information regarding human rights. Media is said to be a vehicle in communicating human rights. Media can be used as a carrier of information generated by the human rights organizations (International Council on Human Rights, 2002). Beside media, civil society organizations, commonly known as non-governmental organizations- NGO, are important actors promoting universal values, human rights and ensuring standards of life. With the improvement of global, civil organizations are playing their role aligning themselves with economic, social and environmental activities. Their perspectives, partnership building capacity and expertise is playing a significant role in ensuring universal human rights. (United Nations, 2011)
Clayton et al (2000) describes that civil society organizations emerged in 1990’s. It constitutes a variety of associations including trade unions, religious groups, sports groups, cultural organizations and some informal organizations. These organizations are found in developing countries. They can play a major role in providing good by reaching poor, providing quality services and sustainability of human rights.
Role of media and Civil society organizations in ensuring human rights
The role of media is understood as “the ability to seek, locate, and select information to suit the individual needs,” and “to evaluate the information according to parameters, such as truthfulness, honesty, interests of the broadcaster, etc.” (Martinsson, 2009) Ray (2007) argues that media acts as a communicator of public. Now a days, the role of media extends not only to provide news but it also analyzes and comments on those news. This helps in shaping the public opinion. With the advent of satellite channels, impact of media has become sharper and deeper. Media makes people aware of human rights, can expose violations and focuses attention.
Nwankwo (2011) observes the role of media in promoting human rights. For the study five journalists are interviewed, three are from BBC who are in the making of the documentary “Chocolate: the bitter truth”. The rest of the two are Swedish journalists. It has been analyzed that how the documentary enhanced human rights promotion. Findings show that media have a role to play for the promotion of human rights. The documentary investigates child labor activities in a cocoa farms in West Africa. The child story is meant to portray the public image and the rights available to them. It reveals that the media can be used to inform public and authorities, using its visual content about the human rights violations. It can be used to increase awareness and enable authorities to take measures in protecting rights.
Sial (2009) state that Pakistani Urdu and English print and electronic media present human right issues in a variety of ways. This study intends to determine how journalists and media organizations view and report human rights issues in Pakistan. The study is conducted over a period of four months starting from July to October, 2008. The total of 35 Urdu and English daily newspapers, magazines is selected. From electronic media the interviews and surveys of journalists and right activists were also included. Electronic media monitoring is limited to talk shows, programs and one hour news bulletin. The sample of 108 electronic and print media journalists Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta and Islamabad were included. The Questionnaire included both the open-ended and closed-ended questions. Similarly the sample of 221 citizens from the selected areas is chosen to find their perception about human right issues and reporting. 15 interviews were also conducted from senior journalists. Results found that media reports on human rights influence people, but there is a lack of investigative reporting on human rights issues in Pakistan. Journalists do not have the required expertise and training to investigate the issue. The environment is better in English newspapers in reporting the human right issues where journalists are not forced to work in the specific area and they have educated audiences. Urdu newspapers rely on sensationalization, mostly. Electronic media is not having access to the remote locations to report the issue and the correspondents sent are, too, not trained in investigation. Asian Human Rights Commission report (2006) provides the context of human rights situation in Pakistan. The survey analyzes the situation from 1st January 2006 to 15th November 2006. It states that the human rights violations are prevalent in the country. The Lawyers committee of human rights state that 1319 persons are subjected to torture, more than 600 people are disappeared, 2100 women are mistreated and 3100 children are sexually harassed. This reports contribute with the sense of informing public and authorities to take measures against human rights violation.
International Federation of Journalists (1999) quotes Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General, International Herald Tribune, June 2, 1999 that “Press freedom is a cornerstone of human rights. It holds governments responsible for their acts, and serves a warning to all that impunity is an illusion.” It states that journalists can play a major role by exposing certain violations of rights whereas media can be used to improve the democratic climate and can reduce corruption in public life. Media can provide reliable information through which public, private organizations, human rights groups, public authorities can work to promote development. It discusses that African media (journalists, publishers, broadcasters) is important for its people in knowing their rights. For most of the people media means a lot as it’s an authentic source even for the awareness of their rights. United Nations (2004) talks about the human rights defenders including the media, state and non-state actors etc. Discussing the article 18, United Nations put emphasis on every individual in the society to promote human rights. It says that promoting rights is not only the function of media and organizations. Article 18 state that “Individuals, groups, institutions and non-governmental organizations also have an important role and a responsibility in contributing, as appropriate, to the promotion of the right of everyone to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other human rights instruments can be fully realized.” United Nations (2004) defines certain rules for promoting human rights that involve quality of work, training, establishing networks and channels of communication, and making strategies. Continuing the discussion United Nations (2007) provides certain frameworks to improve human rights protection. Firstly, it says that national legal frameworks compatible with the human rights principles are essential for the protection of human rights. Secondly, Public participation and diverse social partnerships are vital for the protection of human rights. Thirdly, access to information and transparency contribute to the protection of human rights.
Beman & Calderbank (2008) analyzes that due to globalization of information, services, and labor, media keeps a powerful role in communication. In this mode of communication the journalists serve as the major actors in reporting world’s events and are major players in conveying valuable information. They are influential to determine which news story is important even they can construct the story and can words to affect people. They also have an opportunity to amplify public awareness, to educate them about their rights, and, the most important is that they can help in monitoring human rights as well. Journalists cater certain issues i-e international and national legal framework for human rights, cultural context within the society, socio-economic situation of the area, environment and political situation. But when governments and media cannot contribute in promoting human rights the civil society organizations standout to play their part. They quote “The United Nations once dealt only with Governments. By now we know that peace and prosperity cannot be achieved without partnerships involving Governments, international organizations, the business community, and civil society. In today’s world, we depend on each other.” Human rights are to be reported because they are not just the legal issues but they are having an impact on the development of a country. Hotaki (2008) define the role of civil society organizations “The duties and responsibilities of the civil society are not to act against the government, but to try to facilitate opportunity so people could reach to the legitimate goals and desires in the society”. World Health Organization (2001) states that civil society activities are increasing because of the weakening of nation states and their authorities. It argues that civil society organizations are supporting national and global values, as well as the commercial interests for health guide. Gyimah-Boadi (1999) describes that civil society organizations are acting to reduce corruption in Africa. It focuses on corruption scandals, protests, media sources, and plays its part in economic mismanagement.
UNICEF (2000) quotes a story of a child who has been severely burned, in a Sunday newspaper. The intention of this story is to raise funds for the child for medical treatment. But it is accompanied by full-frontal picture, taken from his waist up that is revealing his injuries and identifying him too. It is written that “This newspaper is publishing Oscar’s picture with the full knowledge that it might offend or shock sensitive readers”. However this dramatic warning and the publication with full-frontal image revealing injuries is violating child’s dignity and privacy. This can be seen as the violation of human rights. Talking about the condition of human rights Khan (2005) state that from Brazil to Bulgaria, due to the efforts of media and civil society organizations laws are devised and human rights education has become the part of curriculum. In South Africa at domestic level many human rights protection groups have been established. Some groups have emerged in Latin America, Eastern Europe and some parts of Africa and Asia whereas CSHRN (2008) state that Afghan civil society, its political and private sector need more serious attention by international community. Milkas (2006) state that Civil organizations in Ethopia are dependent on the international donors to contribute in the protection of human rights.
Muhammad (2007) conducts a study in kreinch including the University of Malaya. The sample includes 50 people having different criteria including Bangladeshi and Malaysian professionals, teachers, students etc. They are asked structured and unstructured questionnaire regarding human rights problems. It involves case studies on the issues of poverty, hunger and gender biasness etc. Human Rights Commission in Malaysia and some NGOs including Transparency International Malaysia is also taken as a case study. It has been found that the case studies and the opinions are objecting the governmental policies. It states that if governments would like to implement human rights education and incorporating national curricula then the environment in Bangladesh and Malaysia can be improved. The governmental act can be helpful in securing human rights.
International Council on Human Rights (2002) reports that news organizations and media, collectively, can say a big deal about human rights. But they have to select news for dissemination and they have no duty to privilege human rights stories over other news stories. The decision of whether or not to go with a news story may be defined by news editor’s attitude towards human rights issue. Moreover, journalists cover a significant amount they are interested in. The difference in news organization’s attitude is that some are interested to cover the human rights issue but some are willing to cover the issue that is news worthy. The international arena specifically filters and frames the issue, contextualizes the problem, sets the political agenda and finally creates the conscience about human rights. Panos Eastern Africa (2010) labels certain principles for ensuring human rights practices. It defines a tool for journalista to use while covering human rights issue. It involves information, mediation, dialogue, promotion of human rights, promotion of gender-equality and breaking prejudices. It says that The Press and Journalists Act 1995 is the principle guide for journalists to improve reporting catering objectivity, authenticity and unbiased attitude.
There are two major points of considering the intersection between media and human rights. First is the “degree of overlap of subject matter” between the two. Much of the reporting includes the elements that directly or indirectly have certain human rights content. Second freedom of the media is itself, a human right issue. Similarly, NGOs are an important source of news. They produce publications on a variety of subjects. Some publications have an influence on media coverage of human rights. But for media, the major issue is that the information provided by human rights organizations is not tailored to meet the needs of media. The content is often taken as unreliable, inappropriate, and mistimed. Mane (2005) defines that “The civil society organisations and human right defenders generally known as NGOs are the eyes and ears for protecting and promoting human rights”. They play the role of an expression of International, National, regional and local voice of people. .
Discussing human rights, Sen (1997) examines the Asian values. It is stated that Asian values are less supportive of the freedom and are more concerned with the discipline of following prescribed values by the inhabitants. This is a contrasting issue with the values of the west. Asia constitutes 60% of the world population and it has a variety of cultural values that are linked to human rights. Keeping this view, the human rights of Asians are compromised on these grounds. Norris (2006) argues that the freedom of press to report on the issues of human is crucial because the press is a watchdog as a civic forum or an agenda-setter. When the media played such roles certain consequences have been met including censorship, harassment of journalists, murder of correspondents and obligations on private media firms.
Role of media and civil society organizations in promoting cultural diversity
Tremblay (2002) states that “If broadcasting systems are designed and operated so as to ensure social equality, they are also often expected to work in such a manner as to achieve cultural objectives”.
Wal (2002) defines that in Britain, regulatory framework has given priority to decrease racially offensive items. Now media and public relations have devised codes of practice. Legal bodies including Independent Television Commission (ITC), Broadcasting Standards Council (BSC), Radio Authority, British Broadcasting Corporation's (BBC) internal complaints process for broadcasting, and the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) for newsprint have a duty to ensure codes to promote cultural diversity. Journalists and editors agreed that portrayal of minorities had improved from 1980s in British society. Media has initiative to promote cultural diversity e-g “Sun newspaper” journalist state that many readers were “black”. But when the newspaper saw itself as the newspaper of working man rather than “white” working class, it was no longer likely to emphasize on “black” people unless color or race was important in news story. Broadcasting media has initiated activities to address the presentation of minorities’ e-g Channel 4 by ITC has committed for three hours multicultural programming, every week, at peak times. Murray et al (2007) analyzes media, other than English and French, serving ethno-cultural residents in Canada i-e immigrants, foreign students and those who speak other languages. The chosen duration is 8th February to 4th April 2007. Media includes television, radio stations, independent producers, newspapers, magazines, business directories, online newspapers and magazines. It has been found that the electronic media content is systematically underestimated by the official sources. They are inclined to show the programs as to cater the corporate sector. Similarly print media is driven by advertising, too. Ethnic programming to promote cultural diversity is lacking in the portrayal in Canada. Eashwar & Eashwar (2007) describes that the media in Malaysia and Singapore portray and report on festivals of different communities, exhibit their religious norms and practices, publish articles and broadcast programs on “how the different communities mix and mingle with one another” to promote cultural diversity. For-example lot of publicity in the Malaysian enabled Malaysians of different ethnic groups to celebrate “Yee Sang” ceremony, as part of Chinese New Year festivities. Undoubtedly, media in Malaysia and Singapore have played a significant role in safeguarding the inter-ethnic harmony because both the countries are the most successful multi-ethnic societies of the world. Group of Specialists on Media Diversity (MC-S-MD) (2008) states the no one can underestimate the significant role played by the broadcasters and public service organizations in promoting the cultural diversity. They have used audiovisual production for supporting diversity. They are engaged in the production of cinematographic work and the television programs. This independent audiovisual production is helpful in portraying public’s expectations of diversity of content, protection of cultural identities as well as the development of audiovisual industry. European Broadcasting Union (2005) points out that cultural diversity and media pluralism are the fundamental components of European audiovisual model and public-service broadcasting. On the convention 2005 European Broadcasting Union states “that the Community and its Member States maintain the possibility to preserve and develop their capacity to define and implement their cultural and audiovisual policies for the purpose of preserving their cultural diversity”. MARSH (2003) argues that specific attention to audiovisual media and the media contents, i-e national identity and the language are important for promoting the cultural diversity. It finds that MEDIA programs are the instruments for examining the role of public television for the defense of cultural diversity. The development of new technologies e-g digital TV, Internet and DVD can also be used as an expression of culture.
RABOY (2007) describes that the community radio is one of the active voices in the civil society development. It is a non-profit entity that holds the principles of freedom of expression and pluralism. It is used to promote cultural diversity. For-example the global community radio movement is started to use communication as a tool for social change. World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC), began in 1983, has remained central to this global movement. It is a vast network that involves 110 countries and approximately reaches 3,000 local members. Radio Sagarmatha 2007, Radio Suara Perempuan (Women Voice Radio), Radio Jën Poj and Radio Uandarhi (Mexico) are included in the network.
Tandon (1991) states that NGO’s play an important role in strengthening the civil society. They have designed positioned networks and associations to increase their link to the public. They practice certain activities to highlight culture, ideas and values. UNESCO (2009) has developed significant thinking on cultural diversity that has been taken up by a variety of programs and multiple agencies are working for it in United Nations and Bretton Woods institutions. For-example World Bank has followed UNESCO’s lead in the context of World Decade on Culture and Development (1988–1997) and The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) have similarly published important reports. Bennett (2001) reports that there is a variety of policy instruments used to promote cultural diversity. Arts and cultural ministries and civil society organizations seek to promote cultural diversity using arts funding, employment and training policies, and the regulation of all types of media including broadcast, print and interpersonal forms. He further explains the sub-divisions of cultural diversity. First is the sub- or multinational that constitute the associations between territory, people and culture. Second is the autochthonous which distinguishes the circumstances of ethnic minorities. Third is the diasporic which refers to the cultures that are produced in association with the history of displaced peoples. The last one is indigenous which resists the colonial history of occupation and carry longer history of cultural continuity. UNEP (2003) has devised plan for promoting cultural diversity. It includes ‘program of actions in field of cultural diversity and biodiversity’, e-g sustainable use of ecosystem. It would develop regional model laws to protect Rights of local communities and farmers to provide access to biological resources. It would help in recognizing the production and consumption patterns of cultures and behaviors. And finally would address the needs of urban cultures.
ANDERLINI & EL-BUSHRA (2004) state that civil society organizations are helpful in uniting individuals of different identities. For example female Muslim doctor, having an interest in environmental issues of Bosnia can declare her identity as a doctor, her interest in environment through an NGO and her religious beliefs through Masjid. She is no longer limited to be identified only as “Muslim” or “woman.” UNESCO (2007) describes that civil society organizations can perform important functions in delivering cultural goods and services, mainly for preferring minorities. They are helpful in performing cultural as well as economical role. They can serve as agents for the development and vehicles of cultural diversity. They can be utilized as valuable policy tools to enhance services, self-organization of society and improved accountability through cultural fields. MENA-OECD (2011) examines the working of civil society organizations. The report state that civil society organizations are promoting equality, participation, and respect of human, civil, social, economic cultural rights for good governance. They are working to reinforce social unity in different societies, by establishing networking. They are building intercultural skills to promote diversity of values in public life and public spheres. Guèvremont (2005) defines that for protecting cultural diversity civil society organizations are developing proposals and are exerting pressure on national authorities. Different conventions and forums are devised to promote their efforts. Discussing those civil society organizations, WCVA (2002) argues that civil society consists of variety of groups, various organizations and networks through which people voluntarily come together to progress common interests. Civil society organizations themselves undertake significant researches on civil society.