Subsequent theories of
international communication
1. Hegemony theory:
Hegemony theory was coined by Gramsci. Hegemony is defined as “the dominance or
leadership of one social group or a political entity over others”.
The origin:
Gramsci’s theory of hegemony is born from the basic idea that government and
state cannot enforce control over any particular class or structure unless
other, more intellectual methods are present. The reason and motive behind the
concept is that the society is structured on power and class base.
The idea of hegemony:
According to Gramsci hegemony is a political power that flows from an
intellectual and moral leadership or authority instead of government or armed
force. Any ruling class forms and maintains hegemony in the civil society. The
ruling authority rules by creating cultural and political laws through unions,
political parties, schools, media and other associations.
The control:
In hegemony, the organization of people, media and information controls the
thought and actions to create a state of domination using dominant ideologies.
Intellectual and moral leadership dominates the state. The dominant class then
imposses its will on subodinate classes.
The tool:
The media has a central role in this theory and the practice of the process. The
role of the media has to be taken into account within the context of the theory
of hegemony due to the value of the media and the public-imposed powers it
yields. The communication from government, between and inside classes, is now
controlled by the media. Similarly, any tact performed by the state is
potentially open to the practice of manipulation that is the element of
hegemony.
Media can be a key to influence the people through information dissemination. It
is used for creating values that others must follow. It is this situation where
the ideological role of the media can be seen to influence the way in which
people can decode and read advertisements, features, television programs and any
text which may hold a hidden meaning.
2. Critical theory:
The theory was coined by critical theorist Max Horkheimer in 1982. The theory
states "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them”. This
theory is basically a critique on society that bounds people.
The theory focuses on the culture and the society within which the people are
bound. It says that there is something wrong with current social reality that
needs to be changed. It finds that human beings are themselves the producers of
their own historical form of life which enslave them. Critical theory is a
social theory that criticizes the structure of the society and asks for changing
the society as a whole.
Purpose:
Critical theorists try to understand and to help overcome the social structures
through which people are dominated and oppressed. Critical theory focuses on
political, cultural, economic, and social relationships within a culture;
particularly as they are related to what groups have power and which do not. In
a society some social groups dominate and others are treated as slaves.
The critical theory provides descriptive bases for social inquiry to decrease
domination of societal structures and to increase freedom in all their forms.
The theory is oriented towards human freedom.
The elements of the society which enslaves humans:
There are some elements that are used to construct the society and the humans
are themselves the creators of those elements. The dominating social group
constructs the societal rules that are practiced frequently. This includes:
• The principles and morals
• Values
• Political, social, cultural and economic life
• Culture
• The semiotic rules by which objects obtain symbolic meanings
• The psychological processes by which the phenomena of everyday consciousness
are generated
• The cognitive i-e mental processes
The change in society:
The critical theory tries to improve the understanding of society by integrating
all the major social sciences, including geography, economics, sociology,
history, political science, anthropology, and psychology. This change may help
in reducing the rule of the powerful social group within the society.
3. Public sphere theory:
The public sphere is the arena where citizens come together and exchange their
opinions about society and societal problems. This arena is a specific place
where citizens gather but it is also a communication infrastructure through
which citizens send and receive information and opinions.
Purpose:
Its basics are:
1. Free flows of information
2. Free expression
3. Free debate.
The ideal public sphere is truly participatory and the best protection against
abuse of power.
The idea:
The understanding of the term is mainly based on the work of German sociologist
Jürgen Habermas. He defines the public sphere as “network for communicating
information and points of view which produces a bundle of public opinions.”
The public sphere is situated between private households on the one hand, and
the state on the other. It is a space “where free and equal citizens come
together to share information, to debate, to discuss, or to plan on common
concerns.”
The basic belief in public sphere theory is that political action is controlled
by the public sphere, and that the only legitimate governments are those that
listen to the public sphere. It says:
1. Governments rest on the support of the people.
2. Citizens’ genuine support for government programs is essential for success.
3. Active and informed citizens provide valuable input to improve the quality of
governance.
Public opinion:
Public opinion is a product of the public sphere, and a crucial concept in
governance and political decision-making. Public opinion can also be defined as
the collection of opinions of many different people and the sum of all their
views. Public opinions are important in forming or destroying any government.
Historical background:
Originally, the public sphere was a specific meeting place. With the development
of media and communication technology, the character of the public sphere
changed from a location to a communication network.
1. Ancient Greece: The most general understanding of the public sphere comes
from the Ancient Greek cities, where citizens directly participated in political
decisions. In this, citizens exchanged and discussed opinions.
2. European Monarchies: In Europe, the Royal court was the public sphere, and
only the king determined what was public.
3. Salons: Over the course of the late 17th and early 18th centuries,
coffeehouses (England), salons (France), and table societies (Germany) were the
places where members of the middle class met to discuss art and politics.
4. Tribal gatherings: In Africa or in regions with strong tribal traditions,
tribe gatherings were playing their role as public sphere.
5. Church worshippers: Later on, the Church often provided a space for members
of oppressed or marginalized groups to gather and articulate their objectives.
6. Today: Today, the public sphere is more strongly tied to the media. It is
“defined in relation to the mass media, because the mass media permit the
circulation of opinions. The Internet in now considered to provide opportunities
for exchanging information among a large number of people of different
backgrounds.
The form:
Until the invention of the printing press, citizens came together in a
particular space, for instance a coffeehouse, where they discussed with other
people. The development of mass communication has changed the nature of the
public sphere from a physical space to a communication structure.
Initially the communication was limited to a particular area or society but with
the advancement of communication technology the communication is having its
impact at international level. The impact includes the use of print media,
electronic media, internet, social networking, online journalism etc.
4. Cultural studies theory:
Cultural studies concerns itself with the meaning and practices of everyday
life. Cultural practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as
watching television, or eating out) in a given culture. Particular meanings are
attached to the ways people in particular cultures do things depending upon the
culture.
The features of cultural theory:
1. Cultural studies aim to examine its subject matter in terms of cultural
practices and their relation to power. It says that each culture has working and
elite class that is having different form of authority.
2. It talks about the use of technology by a particular society. In any given
practice, people use various objects for daily use e-g iPods, internet,
computer, mobiles etc. The villagers have less technological approach whereas
the established societies are somehow dependent on technology for their growth.
3. Each society has one class in power that controls the means of production and
rules over the working class.
4. Each society has the concept of text that includes the written and spoken
language.
5. Each society has meaningful artifacts for communication and influencing
audience’s i-e films, photographs, sports, fashion and mass media.
The power:
Cultural studies argue that the power within particular society limits and
empowers the way of living of common people as well as the elite class. The
power generates meanings that are disseminated, and produced through various
practices, beliefs, institutions, and political, economic, or social structures
within a given culture.
The cultural values are practiced generation to generation and are highly
valued.